Research & Literature

ACTH Stimulation Tests for the Diagnosis of Adrenal Insufficiency: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Ospina NS, Al Nofal A, Bancos I, et al.

The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism 2016; (101(2)):427-34 doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1700.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Primary Adrenal Insufficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline.

Bornstein SR, Allolio B, Arlt W, et al.

The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism 2016; (101(2)):364-89 doi:10.1210/jc.2015-1710.

Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency: Where Is It Hidden and What Does It Look Like?

Guaraldi F, Karamouzis I, Berardelli R, et al.

Frontiers of hormone research 2016; (46()):159-70 doi:10.1159/000443915.

Conduct protocol in emergency: Acute adrenal insufficiency.

Fares AB, Santos RA

Revista da Associacao Medica Brasileira (1992) 2016; (62(8)):728-734 doi:10.1590/1806-9282.62.08.728.

Diarrhea-An uncommon presentation of tertiary adrenal insufficiency following heart transplantation.

Sikanderkhel S, Choudhry MW, Valentine V, et al.

Journal of cardiac surgery 2017; (32(8)):522-525 doi:10.1111/jocs.13175.

Central adrenal insufficiency following traumatic brain injury: a missed diagnosis in the critically injured.

Fan E, Skippen PW, Sargent MA, et al.

Child's nervous system : ChNS : official journal of the International Society for Pediatric Neurosurgery 2017; (33(12)):2205-2207 doi:10.1007/s00381-017-3536-5.

Incidence of Endocrine Dysfunction Following the Use of Different Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Regimens: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Barroso-Sousa R, Barry WT, Garrido-Castro AC, et al.

JAMA oncology 2018; (4(2)):173-182 doi:10.1001/jamaoncol.2017.3064.

Acute-Onset Panhypopituitarism Nearly Missed by Initial Cosyntropin Testing.

Blum CA, Schneeberger D, Lang M, et al.

Case reports in critical care 2017; (2017()):7931438 doi:10.1155/2017/7931438.

SFE/SFEDP adrenal insufficiency French consensus: Introduction and handbook.

Reznik Y, Barat P, Bertherat J, et al.

Annales d'endocrinologie 2018; (79(1)):1-22 doi:10.1016/j.ando.2017.12.001.

Management of Immune-Related Adverse Events in Patients Treated With Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy: American Society of Clinical Oncology Clinical Practice Guideline.

Brahmer JR, Lacchetti C, Schneider BJ, et al.

Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology 2018; (36(17)):1714-1768 doi:10.1200/JCO.2017.77.6385.

[Autoimmune hypophysitis associated with new anti-cancer immunotherapies].

Jannin A, Merlen E, Do Cao C, Penel N

Bulletin du cancer 2018; (105(3)):275-280 doi:10.1016/j.bulcan.2017.10.033.

[Addisonian Crisis - Risk Assessment and Appropriate Treatment].

Meyer G, Badenhoop K

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift (1946) 2018; (143(6)):392-396 doi:10.1055/s-0043-111729.

Dexamethasone-related adrenal insufficiency in patients with brain and skull base tumours.

Benghiat H, Sanghera P, Stange D, et al.

Supportive care in cancer : official journal of the Multinational Association of Supportive Care in Cancer 2018; (26(12)):4031-4038 doi:10.1007/s00520-018-4264-4.

Endocrine Toxicity of Cancer Immunotherapy Targeting Immune Checkpoints.

Chang LS, Barroso-Sousa R, Tolaney SM, et al.

Endocrine reviews 2019; (40(1)):17-65 doi:10.1210/er.2018-00006.

Central adrenal insufficiency: open issues regarding diagnosis and glucocorticoid treatment.

Ceccato F, Scaroni C

Clinical chemistry and laboratory medicine 2019; (57(8)):1125-1135.

Emergency management of adrenal insufficiency in children: advocating for treatment options in outpatient and field settings.

Miller BS, Spencer SP, Geffner ME, et al.

Journal of investigative medicine : the official publication of the American Federation for Clinical Research 2020; (68(1)):16-25 doi:10.1136/jim-2019-000999.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Endocrine-Related Adverse Events Associated with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors.

de Filette J, Andreescu CE, Cools F, et al.

Hormone and metabolic research = Hormon- und Stoffwechselforschung = Hormones et metabolisme 2019; (51(3)):145-156 doi:10.1055/a-0843-3366.

MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Immune check point inhibitors-induced hypophysitis.

Albarel F, Castinetti F, Brue T

European journal of endocrinology 2019; (181(3)):R107-R118.

Recovery from secondary adrenal insufficiency in a patient with immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy induced hypophysitis.

Thapi S, Leiter A, Galsky M, Gallagher EJ

Journal for immunotherapy of cancer 2019; (7(1)):248 doi:10.1186/s40425-019-0729-3.

Guidelines for the management of glucocorticoids during the peri-operative period for patients with adrenal insufficiency: Guidelines from the Association of Anaesthetists, the Royal College of Physicians and the Society for Endocrinology UK.

Woodcock T, Barker P, Daniel S, et al.

Anaesthesia 2020; (75(5)):654-663 doi:10.1111/anae.14963.

ENDOCRINOLOGY IN THE TIME OF COVID-19: Management of adrenal insufficiency.

Arlt W, Baldeweg SE, Pearce SHS, Simpson HL

European journal of endocrinology 2020; (183(1)):G25-G32.

Guidance for the prevention and emergency management of adult patients with adrenal insufficiency.

Simpson H, Tomlinson J, Wass J, et al.

Clinical medicine (London, England) 2020; (20(4)):371-378 doi:10.7861/clinmed.2019-0324.

MRI Findings of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-Induced Hypophysitis: Possible Association with Fibrosis.

Kurokawa R, Ota Y, Gonoi W, et al.

AJNR. American journal of neuroradiology 2020; (41(9)):1683-1689 doi:10.3174/ajnr.A6692.

Anti-PD1 and Anti-PDL1-Induced Hypophysitis: A Cohort Study of 17 Patients with Longitudinal Follow-Up.

Levy M, Abeillon J, Dalle S, et al.

Journal of clinical medicine 2020; (9(10)) doi:10.3390/jcm9103280.

[Endocrine side effects of cancer immunotherapy].

Kroiß M, Schilling B, Deutschbein T

Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift (1946) 2020; (145(24)):1736-1741 doi:10.1055/a-1140-2920.

Hypophysitis related to immune checkpoint inhibitors: An intriguing adverse event with many faces.

Deligiorgi MV, Liapi C, Trafalis DT

Expert opinion on biological therapy 2021; (21(8)):1097-1120 doi:10.1080/14712598.2021.1869211.

Perioperative glucocorticoid management based on current evidence.

Seo KH

Anesthesia and pain medicine 2021; (16(1)):8-15 doi:10.17085/apm.20089.

Adrenal insufficiency.

Husebye ES, Pearce SH, Krone NP, Kämpe O

Lancet (London, England) 2021; (397(10274)):613-629 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00136-7.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor related hypophysitis: diagnostic criteria and recovery patterns.

Nguyen H, Shah K, Waguespack SG, et al.

Endocrine-related cancer 2021; (28(7)):419-431.

Mechanistic insights into immune checkpoint inhibitor-related hypophysitis: a form of paraneoplastic syndrome.

Kanie K, Iguchi G, Bando H, et al.

Cancer immunology, immunotherapy : CII 2021; (70(12)):3669-3677 doi:10.1007/s00262-021-02955-y.

Hypophysitis from immune checkpoint inhibitors: challenges in diagnosis and management.

Kotwal A

Current opinion in endocrinology, diabetes, and obesity 2021; (28(4)):427-434 doi:10.1097/MED.0000000000000652.

Late-onset hypophysitis after discontinuation of nivolumab treatment for advanced skin melanoma: a case report.

Antoniou S, Bazazo G, Röckl L, et al.

BMC endocrine disorders 2021; (21(1)):191 doi:10.1186/s12902-021-00854-y.

Management of Immune-Related Adverse Events in Patients Treated With Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy: ASCO Guideline Update.

Schneider BJ, Naidoo J, Santomasso BD, et al.

Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology 2021; (39(36)):4073-4126 doi:10.1200/JCO.21.01440.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-Induced Hypophysitis and Patterns of Loss of Pituitary Function.

Jessel S, Weiss SA, Austin M, et al.

Frontiers in oncology 2022; (12()):836859 doi:10.3389/fonc.2022.836859.

The side effects of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy on the endocrine system.

Goyal I, Pandey MR, Sharma R, et al.

The Indian journal of medical research 2021; (154(4)):559-570 doi:10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_313_19.

Routine Screening for Central and Primary Adrenal Insufficiency during Immune-Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy: An Endocrinology Perspective for Oncologists.

Druce I, Tawagi K, Shaw JLV, et al.

Current oncology (Toronto, Ont.) 2022; (29(7)):4665-4677 doi:10.3390/curroncol29070370.

Clinical course and management of insidious adrenal crisis manifested initially as hyperpyrexia secondary to pembrolizumab: Case reports and literature review.

Geng D, Wang Y, Zhang X, et al.

Frontiers in oncology 2022; (12()):981084 doi:10.3389/fonc.2022.981084.

Diagnosis and Management of Adrenal Insufficiency and Adrenal Crisis in the Emergency Department.

Lentz S, Collier KC, Willis G, Long B

The Journal of emergency medicine 2022; (63(2)):212-220 doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2022.06.005.

Endocrine-related adverse conditions in patients receiving immune checkpoint inhibition: an ESE clinical practice guideline.

Husebye ES, Castinetti F, Criseno S, et al.

European journal of endocrinology 2022; (187(6)):G1-G21 doi:10.1530/EJE-22-0689.

Recurrence of Hypophysitis After Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Rechallenge.

Park BC, Jung S, Wright JJ, Johnson DB

The oncologist 2022; (27(12)):e967-e969 doi:10.1093/oncolo/oyac220.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor-mediated hypophysitis: no place like home.

Cooksley T, Knight T, Lindsay D, et al.

Clinical medicine (London, England) 2023; (23(1)):81-84 doi:10.7861/clinmed.2022-0429.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors and Associated Pituitary Dysfunctions: A Mini-Review.

Fukuda I

Journal of Nippon Medical School = Nippon Ika Daigaku zasshi 2023; (90(2)):149-156 doi:10.1272/jnms.JNMS.2023_90-215.

Hypophysitis and Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency From Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: Diagnostic Challenges and Link With Survival.

Johnson J, Goldner W, Abdallah D, et al.

Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network : JNCCN 2023; (21(3)):281-287 doi:10.6004/jnccn.2022.7098.

Pituitary and adrenal disorders induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Albarel F, Brue T, Castinetti F

Annales d'endocrinologie 2023; (84(3)):339-345 doi:10.1016/j.ando.2023.03.014.

Adrenal Failure: An Evidence-Based Diagnostic Approach.

Shaikh S, Nagendra L, Shaikh S, Pappachan JM

Diagnostics (Basel, Switzerland) 2023; (13(10)) doi:10.3390/diagnostics13101812.

Potential pitfalls in diagnosis of immunotherapy-induced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis abnormalities: a clinical case.

Bi Y, Adam S, Chatzimavridou V, et al.

Endocrine oncology (Bristol, England) 2022; (2(1)):K5-K9 doi:10.1530/EO-21-0023.

Pituitary metastasis of salivary gland carcinoma mimicking hypophysitis: A case report and literature review.

Tsutsui T, Hayashi K, Oda M, et al.

International journal of surgery case reports 2023; (109()):108522 doi:10.1016/j.ijscr.2023.108522.

Unveiling the Etiopathogenic Spectrum of Hypophysitis: A Narrative Review.

Menotti S, Giampietro A, Raia S, et al.

Journal of personalized medicine 2023; (13(8)) doi:10.3390/jpm13081210.

Effects and mechanisms of perioperative medications on the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal response to surgical injury: A narrative review.

Feng Y, Chang P, Liu J, Zhang WS

Journal of clinical anesthesia 2024; (94()):111367 doi:10.1016/j.jclinane.2023.111367.

Adrenal crisis mainly manifested as recurrent syncope secondary to tislelizumab: a case report and literature review.

Wei H, Zuo A, Chen J, et al.

Frontiers in immunology 2023; (14()):1295310 doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1295310.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced isolated adrenocorticotropic hormone deficiency: a systematic review.

Wang F, Shi X, Yu X, Yang Y

Frontiers in endocrinology 2024; (15()):1326684 doi:10.3389/fendo.2024.1326684.

Fluctuations in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone concentration may predict the onset of immune checkpoint inhibitor-related hypophysitis.

Bando H, Yamamoto M, Urai S, et al.

Journal for immunotherapy of cancer 2024; (12(2)) doi:10.1136/jitc-2023-008634.

Pituitary-related immune adverse events induced by programmed death Protein-1 inhibitors differ clinically from hypophysitis.

Yang L, Zhang Y, Chen X, et al.

Clinical endocrinology 2024; (101(2)):130-139 doi:10.1111/cen.15075.

Differences in checkpoint-inhibitor-induced hypophysitis: mono- versus combination therapy induced hypophysitis.

van der Leij S, Suijkerbuijk KPM, van den Broek MFM, et al.

Frontiers in endocrinology 2024; (15()):1400841 doi:10.3389/fendo.2024.1400841.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor induced hypophysitis: a specific disease of corticotrophs?

Patel N, Hirwa K, Gardner G, et al.

Endocrine connections 2024; (13(11)).

Gaps in the management of adrenal insufficiency in melanoma survivors: a retrospective cohort study.

Lin W, Wang W, Hodi FS, Min L

EClinicalMedicine 2025; (79()):102984 doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102984.

Best practices in the management of thyroid dysfunction induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Yamauchi I, Yabe D

European thyroid journal 2025; (14(1)).

High-dose glucocorticoid treatment vs. glucocorticoid replacement in immune checkpoint inhibitor associated hypophysitis (CORTICI): an open, randomised controlled trial.

Theiler-Schwetz V, Trummer C, Schmitt L, et al.

Annals of medicine 2025; (57(1)):2453829 doi:10.1080/07853890.2025.2453829.

People With Adrenal Insufficiency Who Are in Adrenal Crisis Are Frequently Unable to Self-Administer Rescue Injections.

Hover WJ, Krein AD, Kallet J, et al.

Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists 2025; (31(5)):625-630 doi:10.1016/j.eprac.2025.02.017.

Pembrolizumab-Induced Hypophysitis: A Rare Immune-Related Adverse Event in a Patient With Metastatic Non-small Cell Lung Cancer.

Al Heyasat A, Chaudhry MS, Alkharabsheh M, et al.

Cureus 2025; (17(4)):e82701 doi:10.7759/cureus.82701.

Adrenal Insufficiency in Adults: A Review.

Vaidya A, Findling J, Bancos I

JAMA 2025; (334(8)):714-725 doi:10.1001/jama.2025.5485.

Retrospective analysis of clinical characteristics and treatment of patients with immune checkpoint inhibitors-induced adrenal insufficiency.

Huang X, Zhang L, Zhang C, et al.

Frontiers in oncology 2025; (15()):1614223 doi:10.3389/fonc.2025.1614223.

Initial symptoms and diagnostic delay in immune checkpoint inhibitor-related adrenal insufficiency: a systematic review and meta-ethnography of case reports.

Ohta R, Ryu Y, Tanaka K, et al.

Frontiers in endocrinology 2025; (16()):1636452 doi:10.3389/fendo.2025.1636452.

Hypophysitis Associated with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors.

Corsello A, Paragliola RM, Torino F, Salvatori R

Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America 2025; (54(4)):685-702 doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2025.06.009.

Normal adrenocorticotropic hormone levels do not exclude adrenal insufficiency during immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy: evidence from clinical, steroid, and structural analyses.

Ishibashi Y, Baba R, Okada A, et al.

Frontiers in endocrinology 2025; (16()):1683546 doi:10.3389/fendo.2025.1683546.

Adrenal Insufficiency-Induced Delirium Following Gastrectomy in a Patient With Gastric Cancer Treated With Nivolumab, Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: A Case Report.

Yamada K, Sasaki T, Owada T, et al.

Neuropsychopharmacology reports 2025; (45(4)):e70072 doi:10.1002/npr2.70072.

Magnetic resonance imaging features of hypophysitis in patients with cancer treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Angelousi A, Asimakopoulou S, Bourgioti C, et al.

Journal of neuroendocrinology 2026; (38(1)):e70116 doi:10.1111/jne.70116.

Hypophysitis Induced by Tislelizumab: A Case Report of Somnolence and Delirium with Elevated Eosinophils.

Hu F, Lou N, Wu G

The American journal of case reports 2025; (26()):e948143 doi:10.12659/AJCR.948143.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-Related Hypophysitis and Pituitary Dysfunction: A Systematic Review of Diagnosis and Management.

SirDeshpande P, Hegde SBS, Akhtar H

Cureus 2025; (17(12)):e98717 doi:10.7759/cureus.98717.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy Induced Hypophysitis; A Tertiary Care Centre Experience; Highlighting Detection, Treatment Outcomes and Long Term Endocrinopathies and Recovery.

Mathara Diddhenipothage SAD, Warden J, Herbert K, et al.

Clinical endocrinology 2026; (105(3)):331-338 doi:10.1111/cen.70137.

Endocrinologist-Led Management of Endocrine Immune-Related Adverse Events: Real-World Evidence Supporting the Japan Endocrine Society Guidelines.

Nishihama K, Fujimoto H, Saito K, et al.

Cancer medicine 2026; (15(4)):e71818 doi:10.1002/cam4.71818.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-Induced Endocrine Dysfunction: Early Detection of Symptoms and Timely Intervention.

Obaed NG, Fofana K, Matarneh A, et al.

Clinical case reports 2026; (14(4)):e72528 doi:10.1002/ccr3.72528.

Central Diabetes Insipidus Following Steroid Replacement for Hypoadrenalism in Pembrolizumab-Induced Hypophysitis.

Alasmar A, San SS, Ta T, Mani SE

Cureus 2026; (18(4)):e107752 doi:10.7759/cureus.107752.