Research & Literature

Role of intravenous immune globulin in streptococcal toxic shock syndrome and Clostridium difficile infection.

Shah PJ, Vakil N, Kabakov A

American journal of health-system pharmacy : AJHP : official journal of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists 2015; (72(12)):1013-9 doi:10.2146/ajhp140359.

Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome: Life Saving Role of Peritoneal Lavage and Drainage.

Yokoyama M, Oyama F, Ito A, et al.

Clinical medicine insights. Case reports 2016; (9()):75-7 doi:10.4137/CCRep.S40217.

Superantigens hyperinduce inflammatory cytokines by enhancing the B7-2/CD28 costimulatory receptor interaction.

Levy R, Rotfogel Z, Hillman D, et al.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2016; (113(42)):E6437-E6446 doi:10.1073/pnas.1603321113.

[An rare complication of scarlet fever : invasive group A streptococcal infection with streptococcal toxic shock syndrome].

Warnier H, Depuis Z, Nyamugabo K, et al.

Revue medicale de Liege 2017; (72(3)):132-137.

Shocking superantigens promote establishment of bacterial infection.

Siemens N, Norrby-Teglund A

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2017; (114(38)):10000-10002 doi:10.1073/pnas.1713451114.

The Evaluation and Management of Toxic Shock Syndrome in the Emergency Department: A Review of the Literature.

Gottlieb M, Long B, Koyfman A

The Journal of emergency medicine 2018; (54(6)):807-814 doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2017.12.048.

Polyspecific Intravenous Immunoglobulin in Clindamycin-treated Patients With Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Parks T, Wilson C, Curtis N, et al.

Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2018; (67(9)):1434-1436 doi:10.1093/cid/ciy401.

Kawasaki disease shock syndrome: Unique and severe subtype of Kawasaki disease.

Gamez-Gonzalez LB, Moribe-Quintero I, Cisneros-Castolo M, et al.

Pediatrics international : official journal of the Japan Pediatric Society 2018; (60(9)):781-790 doi:10.1111/ped.13614.

Nosocomial Staphylococcal Toxic Shock. Case Report.

Arbune M, Tercu L

Journal of critical care medicine (Universitatea de Medicina si Farmacie din Targu-Mures) 2016; (2(3)):142-144 doi:10.1515/jccm-2016-0020.

Successful treatment of out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest due to streptococcal toxic shock syndrome - effectiveness of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and the rapid antigen group A streptococcus test: a case report.

Mizuguchi Y, Taniguchi N, Takahashi A

Journal of medical case reports 2018; (12(1)):244 doi:10.1186/s13256-018-1780-2.

Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome in the intensive care unit.

Schmitz M, Roux X, Huttner B, Pugin J

Annals of intensive care 2018; (8(1)):88 doi:10.1186/s13613-018-0438-y.

Adjunctive protein synthesis inhibitor antibiotics for toxin suppression in Staphylococcus aureus infections: a systematic appraisal.

Campbell AJ, Dotel R, Blyth CC, et al.

The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy 2019; (74(1)):1-5 doi:10.1093/jac/dky387.

Bacterial Superantigen Toxins, CD28, and Drug Development.

Kaempfer R

Toxins 2018; (10(11)) doi:10.3390/toxins10110459.

Similarities and Differences Between Staphylococcal and Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndromes in Children: Results From a 30-Case Cohort.

Javouhey E, Bolze PA, Jamen C, et al.

Frontiers in pediatrics 2018; (6()):360 doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00360.

Infections Caused by Group C and G Streptococcus (Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis and Others): Epidemiological and Clinical Aspects.

Baracco GJ

Microbiology spectrum 2019; (7(2)) doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.GPP3-0016-2018.

Menstrual toxic shock syndrome: case report and systematic review of the literature.

Berger S, Kunerl A, Wasmuth S, et al.

The Lancet. Infectious diseases 2019; (19(9)):e313-e321 doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(19)30041-6.

Toxic Shock Syndrome Caused by Staphylococcal Infection After Breast Implant Surgery: A Case Report and Literature Review.

Hisanaga K, Kadota H, Fukushima S, et al.

Annals of plastic surgery 2019; (83(3)):359-362 doi:10.1097/SAP.0000000000001868.

Another Fatality Due to Postpartum Group A Streptococcal Endometritis in the Modern Era.

Singhal A, Alomari M, Gupta S, et al.

Cureus 2019; (11(5)):e4618 doi:10.7759/cureus.4618.

Intravenous immunoglobulin for adjunctive treatment of severe infections in ICUs.

Aubron C, Berteau F, Sparrow RL

Current opinion in critical care 2019; (25(5)):417-422 doi:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000639.

Comparison of 16S Ribosomal RNA Targeted Sequencing and Culture for Bacterial Identification in Normally Sterile Body Fluid Samples: Report of a 10-Year Clinical Laboratory Review.

Yoo IY, Kang OK, Lee MK, et al.

Annals of laboratory medicine 2020; (40(1)):63-67 doi:10.3343/alm.2020.40.1.63.

IntegraⓇ dermal regeneration template as the nidus of staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome: A case report.

Gonzalez SR, Yuen JC

JPRAS open 2020; (25()):24-29 doi:10.1016/j.jpra.2020.05.003.

Searching the Staphylococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin -1 in Septic Children with negative Cultures: A Comparative Study in Tehran, Iran.

Noorbakhsh S, Rabiei AA, Rahbarimanesh AA, et al.

Infectious disorders drug targets 2021; (21(2)):187-192 doi:10.2174/1871526520666200731180641.

Staphylococcal toxic shock syndrome in a lactating mother with breast abscess: A case report.

Pandit K, Khanal S, Adhikari P, et al.

Annals of medicine and surgery (2012) 2020; (57()):133-136 doi:10.1016/j.amsu.2020.07.027.

Invasive Group A Streptococcal Infections Among People Who Inject Drugs and People Experiencing Homelessness in the United States, 2010-2017.

Valenciano SJ, Onukwube J, Spiller MW, et al.

Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2021; (73(11)):e3718-e3726 doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa787.

Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome in a patient with community-acquired pneumonia. Impact of rapid diagnostics on patient management.

Bagge K, Pedersen L, Lisby JG

Access microbiology 2020; (2(8)):acmi000144 doi:10.1099/acmi.0.000144.

Staphylococcal enterotoxin B- and lipopolysaccharide-induced toxic shock syndrome in a burn patient.

Yamasaki O, Sugihara S, Kajita A, et al.

The Journal of dermatology 2021; (48(4)):547-550 doi:10.1111/1346-8138.15729.

An overlooked cause of septic shock: Staphylococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome secondary to an axillary abscess.

Poudel B, Zhang Q, Trongtorsak A, et al.

IDCases 2021; (23()):e01039 doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2020.e01039.

The eternal dilemma of antitoxin antibiotics for skin and soft tissue infection.

Burillo A, Bouza E

Current opinion in infectious diseases 2021; (34(2)):80-88 doi:10.1097/QCO.0000000000000711.

Early intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for group A β-haemolytic streptococcal meningitis with toxic shock syndrome.

Adigbli D, Rozen V, Darbar A, Janin P

BMJ case reports 2021; (14(3)) doi:10.1136/bcr-2020-238472.

Menstrual Toxic Shock Syndrome: A French Nationwide Multicenter Retrospective Study.

Contou D, Colin G, Travert B, et al.

Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2022; (74(2)):246-253 doi:10.1093/cid/ciab378.

Toxic shock syndrome associated with menstrual cup use.

El Soufi H, El Soufi Y, Al-Nuaimi S, Bagheri F

IDCases 2021; (25()):e01171 doi:10.1016/j.idcr.2021.e01171.

Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome in the setting of recent gynecologic surgery: A case report.

Gruttadauria M, Pollard J, Kim S, Lian X

Case reports in women's health 2021; (32()):e00352 doi:10.1016/j.crwh.2021.e00352.

Toxic shock syndrome complicated with symmetrical peripheral gangrene after liposuction and fat transfer: a case report and literature review.

Liu Z, Zhang W, Zhang B, et al.

BMC infectious diseases 2021; (21(1)):1137 doi:10.1186/s12879-021-06777-2.

Post-Intensive Care Syndrome in Survivors from Critical Illness including COVID-19 Patients: A Narrative Review.

Vrettou CS, Mantziou V, Vassiliou AG, et al.

Life (Basel, Switzerland) 2022; (12(1)) doi:10.3390/life12010107.

TSST-1 protein exerts indirect effect on platelet activation and apoptosis.

Guo M, Yi T, Wang Q, et al.

Platelets 2022; (33(7)):998-1008 doi:10.1080/09537104.2022.2026907.

Post-intensive care syndrome.

Pšenička O, Křížová J

Vnitrni lekarstvi 2021; (67(E-6)):8-12.

Prevalence of post-intensive care syndrome in mechanically ventilated patients with COVID-19.

Nanwani-Nanwani K, López-Pérez L, Giménez-Esparza C, et al.

Scientific reports 2022; (12(1)):7977 doi:10.1038/s41598-022-11929-8.

A Rare Case of Staphylococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome in a Neonate.

Shrestha N, Joshi A, Hayashi Y, et al.

Case reports in infectious diseases 2022; (2022()):8111620 doi:10.1155/2022/8111620.

Acute abdomen: a rare presentation of group a streptococcal infection.

Lubach J, Vannijvel M, Stragier H, et al.

Acta chirurgica Belgica 2023; (123(4)):440-443 doi:10.1080/00015458.2022.2040108.

Clinical Profile, Intensive Care Needs, and Short-Term Outcome of Toxic Shock Syndrome Among Children: A 10-Year Single-Centre Experience from North India.

Angurana SK, Awasthi P, K C S, et al.

Indian journal of pediatrics 2023; (90(4)):334-340 doi:10.1007/s12098-022-04271-4.

Fulminant necrotizing streptococcal myositis with dramatic outcome - a rare case report.

Morar T, Pirlog R, Vlaicu S, et al.

Medicine and pharmacy reports 2021; (94(4)):507-511 doi:10.15386/mpr-1866.

Post-intensive care syndrome: A review for the primary care NP.

Dunn H, Balas MC, Hetland B, Krupp A

The Nurse practitioner 2022; (47(11)):15-22 doi:10.1097/01.NPR.0000884864.28090.c9.

ICU Management of Invasive β-Hemolytic Streptococcal Infections.

Babiker A, Kadri SS

Infectious disease clinics of North America 2022; (36(4)):861-887 doi:10.1016/j.idc.2022.07.007.

The superantigens SpeC and TSST-1 specifically activate TRBV12-3/12-4+ memory T cells.

Shepherd FR, Davies K, Miners KL, et al.

Communications biology 2023; (6(1)):78 doi:10.1038/s42003-023-04420-1.

Hospital Memories and Six-Month Psychological Outcome: A Prospective Study in Critical Ill Patients with COVID-19 Respiratory Failure.

Pozzi M, Ripa C, Meroni V, et al.

Journal of clinical medicine 2023; (12(9)) doi:10.3390/jcm12093344.

The homodimer interfaces of costimulatory receptors B7 and CD28 control their engagement and pro-inflammatory signaling.

Popugailo A, Rotfogel Z, Levy M, et al.

Journal of biomedical science 2023; (30(1)):49 doi:10.1186/s12929-023-00941-3.

A clindamycin acetylated derivative with reduced antibacterial activity inhibits articular hyperalgesia and edema by attenuating neutrophil recruitment, NF-κB activation and tumor necrosis factor-α production.

Rodrigues FF, Lino CI, Oliveira VLS, et al.

International immunopharmacology 2023; (122()):110609 doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110609.

Acute kidney injury in pediatric toxic shock syndrome is associated with worse clinical course in the intensive care unit.

Weissbach A, Kaplan E, Kadmon G, et al.

European journal of pediatrics 2023; (182(9)):4253-4261 doi:10.1007/s00431-023-05109-7.

Effectiveness of intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for invasive group A Streptococcus infection: A Japanese nationwide observational study.

Senda A, Endo A, Fushimi K, Otomo Y

International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases 2023; (135()):84-90 doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2023.08.011.

Managing the deteriorating child with suspected group A Streptococcus infection.

Kempsell-Smith M, Fitzsimons C

Nursing children and young people 2023; (35(6)):35-42 doi:10.7748/ncyp.2023.e1467.

Mental Health in Women.

Azharuddin S, Vital-Daley K, Mustovic V, et al.

Critical care nursing quarterly 2023; (46(4)):336-353 doi:10.1097/CNQ.0000000000000471.

A Case Report of Streptococcus Dysgalactiae Toxic Shock Syndrome Complicated with Symmetric Peripheral Gangrene.

Shen X, Liang H, Wu G, et al.

Infection and drug resistance 2023; (16()):5977-5983 doi:10.2147/IDR.S426930.

Toxin exposure and HLA alleles determine serum antibody binding to toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 (TSST-1) of Staphylococcus aureus.

Weiss S, Holtfreter S, Meyer TC, et al.

Frontiers in immunology 2023; (14()):1229562 doi:10.3389/fimmu.2023.1229562.

Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome with associated necrotising fasciitis necessitating amputation of the lower extremity - A case report.

Strecker T, Treutlein C, Agaimy A, Wehrfritz A

SAGE open medical case reports 2023; (11()):2050313X231207202 doi:10.1177/2050313X231207202.

Efficacy and side-effect profile of tedizolid in the treatment of streptococcal toxic shock syndrome due to clindamycin-resistant Streptococcus pyogenes: A case report.

Yokota K, Kawakami K

Journal of infection and chemotherapy : official journal of the Japan Society of Chemotherapy 2024; (30(8)):785-788 doi:10.1016/j.jiac.2024.01.002.

Group A Streptococcus interactions with the host across time and space.

Guerra S, LaRock C

Current opinion in microbiology 2024; (77()):102420 doi:10.1016/j.mib.2023.102420.

Increase in invasive group A streptococcal disease among Australian children coinciding with northern hemisphere surges.

Abo YN, Oliver J, McMinn A, et al.

The Lancet regional health. Western Pacific 2023; (41()):100873 doi:10.1016/j.lanwpc.2023.100873.

Toxic Shock Syndrome: Eighteen Years of Experience in a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit.

Cascais I, Losa A, Correia C, et al.

Cureus 2024; (16(1)):e52898 doi:10.7759/cureus.52898.

Sequential Extracorporeal Therapy of Pathogen Removal Followed by Cell-Directed Extracorporeal Therapy in Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome Refractory to Venoarterial Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: A Case Report.

Amerson SJ, Hoffman M, Abouzahr F, et al.

Critical care explorations 2024; (6(3)):e1058 doi:10.1097/CCE.0000000000001058.

A woman in her fifties with a post-operative infection, generalised rash and organ failure.

Tahri NB, Gravdehaug B, Bahrami N, Reitsma L

Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening : tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke 2024; (144(5)) doi:10.4045/tidsskr.23.0623.

Long-term outcomes of patients with toxic shock syndrome: A matched cohort study.

Auger N, Carrier FM, Waechter J, et al.

The Journal of infection 2024; (89(2)):106213 doi:10.1016/j.jinf.2024.106213.

Treatment of toxic shock in children.

Giang V, McMullan B

Archives of disease in childhood. Education and practice edition 2025; (110(2)):64-69 doi:10.1136/archdischild-2023-325642.

Emerging infection: streptococcal toxic shock-like syndrome caused by group B Streptococcus (GBS), Streptococcus agalactiae.

Rajack F, Medford S, Ramadan A, Naab T

Autopsy & case reports 2024; (14()):e2024497 doi:10.4322/acr.2024.497.

Pediatric Leptospirosis: A Case Report and Review of Literature.

Döneray H, Keskin H, Akat H, et al.

The Eurasian journal of medicine 2023; (55(1)):150-156 doi:10.5152/eurasianjmed.2023.23380.

Recurrent streptococcal toxic shock syndrome due to distinct episodes of Streptococcus dysgalactiae and Streptococcus agalactiae septic arthritis.

Yun AE, Johnson LB

BMJ case reports 2024; (17(8)) doi:10.1136/bcr-2024-260409.

Post-pandemic increase in invasive group A strep infections in New Zealand.

Ammar S, Anglemyer A, Bennett J, et al.

Journal of infection and public health 2024; (17(11)):102545 doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2024.102545.

Creating a Culture of an Awake and Walking Intensive Care Unit: In-Hospital Strategies to Mitigate Post-Intensive Care Syndrome.

Dayton K, Lindroth H, Engel HJ, et al.

Critical care clinics 2025; (41(1)):121-140 doi:10.1016/j.ccc.2024.08.002.

Toxic Shock Syndrome as an Unexpected Complication in Outpatient Pediatric Burn Treatment: A Chart Review.

Sirajee R, Baykan A, Fraulin FOG, et al.

Plastic surgery (Oakville, Ont.) 2025; (33(4)):637-645 doi:10.1177/22925503241249758.

A Comprehensive Study of Bacterial Etiological Agents in Sterile Body Fluids and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns Among Hospitalized Patients at an Academic Medical Center in India.

Patel R, Pawar S, Patil S

Cureus 2024; (16(10)):e71862 doi:10.7759/cureus.71862.

Effect size estimates of risk factors for post-intensive care syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Gao S, Liang X, Pan Z, et al.

Intensive & critical care nursing 2025; (87()):103888 doi:10.1016/j.iccn.2024.103888.

Japan's Growing Public Health Crisis: Tackling the Alarming Increase in Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome.

Kumar H, Dhali A, Dhali GK

Cureus 2024; (16(12)):e75890 doi:10.7759/cureus.75890.

TSST-1 promotes colonization of Staphylococcus aureus within the vaginal tract by activation of CD8+ T cells.

Dufresne K, Al KF, Craig HC, et al.

Infection and immunity 2025; (93(2)):e0043924 doi:10.1128/iai.00439-24.

Emerging Trends in Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome, Japan.

Ujiie M

Emerging infectious diseases 2025; (31(4)):847-849 doi:10.3201/eid3104.241076.

Streptococcus pyogenes Activates Human Platelets via Streptolysin S-Mediated Calcium Ion Influx.

Riegner A, Jahn K, Wesche J, et al.

Journal of innate immunity 2025; (17(1)):198-210 doi:10.1159/000544951.

Toxic Shock Syndrome due to Streptococcus Pyogenes: Case Report.

Ganss A, Venturini S, Reffo I, et al.

The Journal of emergency medicine 2025; (72()):77-82 doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2024.11.009.

Severe Pneumonia Due to Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome in a Patient Positive for Influenza Virus Antigen: A Case Report.

Nagai K, Inokuchi R, Nakano H, et al.

Cureus 2025; (17(5)):e83620 doi:10.7759/cureus.83620.

Distinct Trajectories of Fatigue Among Families with Post-Intensive Care Syndrome.

Chen Q, Huang Y, Xu L, Chen X

International journal of general medicine 2025; (18()):3093-3103 doi:10.2147/IJGM.S513018.

Staphylococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome Associated With a Cosmetic Rhinoplasty Procedure.

Kitagawa N, Umemoto D, Nishioka H

Cureus 2025; (17(7)):e87549 doi:10.7759/cureus.87549.

Toxic Shock Syndrome: A Rare but Dangerous Adverse Effect of Anabolic Steroid Injection.

Van der Borght E, Demuynck T, Keuleers L, et al.

Clinical case reports 2025; (13(8)):e70789 doi:10.1002/ccr3.70789.

Toxic shock syndrome complicated by co-infection with multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii.

P A, J PV

BMJ case reports 2025; (18(9)) doi:10.1136/bcr-2024-264010.

Early Diagnosis of Streptococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome With Abdominal Computed Tomography: A Case Report.

Kurokawa R, Kurokawa M, Onoda S, et al.

Cureus 2025; (17(8)):e90348 doi:10.7759/cureus.90348.

Severe Necrotizing Fasciitis Following Minor Neglected Left-Hand Wound Complicated With Toxic Shock Syndrome and Multiorgan Failure: A Case Report and Literature Review.

Hassanien A, Sewify K, Alshaer A, et al.

Cureus 2025; (17(8)):e90537 doi:10.7759/cureus.90537.

Post-intensive care syndrome. What clinicians and researchers must know.

Vardon F, Fleischmann-Struzek C, Latronico N, Cinotti R

Anaesthesia, critical care & pain medicine 2026; (45(1)):101620 doi:10.1016/j.accpm.2025.101620.

Effects of The Caregiver Pathway intervention on symptoms of post-intensive care syndrome among family caregivers to critically ill patients: long-term results from a randomized controlled trial.

Watland S, Solberg Nes L, Ekeberg Ø, et al.

Intensive care medicine 2025; (51(11)):2042-2053 doi:10.1007/s00134-025-08139-x.

Navigating the Intensive Care Unit-to-Home Trajectory: A Qualitative Study of Relatives' Experiences of Life During and After Critical Illness.

Alrø AB, Møller M, Svenningsen H, et al.

Nursing in critical care 2025; (30(6)):e70220 doi:10.1111/nicc.70220.

Postoperative Staphylococcal Toxic Shock Syndrome in a Patient Following Right Knee Fracture Repair: A Case Report.

Nyamongo N, Garritano J, Rosen D, Rosen T

Cureus 2025; (17(9)):e93013 doi:10.7759/cureus.93013.

Toxic Shock Syndrome in a 45-Year-Old Woman Possibly Associated with Tampon Use: A Case Report of Multiorgan Failure Due to Streptococcus agalactiae.

Zavidić T, Dejhalla E, Zahirović D

Diseases (Basel, Switzerland) 2025; (13(11)) doi:10.3390/diseases13110376.

Incidence and risk factors of post-intensive care syndrome (PICS) in sepsis survivors: a prospective, observational study.

Zhang Y, Yin XY, Zhang MQ, et al.

BMC anesthesiology 2025; doi:10.1186/s12871-025-03547-4.

Association between the clinical status of patients admitted to Intensive Care and the emotional state of their next of kin: a cross-sectional study.

Regalado BC, Dos Santos NDM, Alvarelhão JJM, Simões JFFL

Journal of anesthesia, analgesia and critical care 2026; (6(1)).